Choosing Not to Know

 Everybody Does It

We all occasionally decide that some information is not worth the effort needed to acquire it.  But do you ever deliberately fail to acquire relevant, valuable information?  For instance, imagine you meet a new person who is physically attractive. You want very much to develop a relationship.  You feel vague unease about a feature of their personality. However, your wish for connection over-rides your motivation to evaluate your hunch.  

Why We Avoid Information (Even When It Could Help Us)

Have you ever put off checking your bank balance, opening a scary-looking envelope, or asking a question because you weren't sure you wanted the answer? You're not alone — and you're not being irrational. Psychologists call this information avoidance: the habit of steering clear of facts that could actually help us, simply because getting those facts feels uncomfortable.

It's Not About Being Lazy or Uninformed

For a long time, people assumed that if someone didn't seek out important information, it was because they didn't know better or couldn't be bothered. But research tells a different story. Most of the time, we avoid information because learning it comes with a cost — emotional, mental, social, or practical.

Think about it: information that challenges what you believe, forces you to change your behavior, or might confirm your worst fear can feel genuinely threatening. In moments like that, not knowing can feel safer than knowing — even though, deep down, we usually sense that knowing would help.

Researchers have found that this kind of avoidance often works as a self-protective strategy. It buys us time before we have to deal with something upsetting, whether that's a health scare, money trouble, or a rocky relationship. When we're anxious or uncertain, avoiding information can be a way of managing that anxiety and holding onto hope a little longer — even if it's temporary.

You can see this play out in everyday life: people put off genetic testing because they're afraid of what it might reveal, avoid checking their finances because they're afraid of debt, tune out political news because they're emotionally worn out, or skip medical screenings because not knowing feels more bearable than a diagnosis. In every case, it's not a random choice — it's a kind of trade-off between the pain of finding out and the comfort of staying unaware.

Not All Avoidance Looks the Same

Psychologist Julia Nolte, whose research began at Cornell University before she moved to Tilburg University, has shown that this kind of avoidance isn't one single behavior — it changes depending on the situation, the type of information, and what's motivating the person at that moment.

Her work also draws an important distinction: sometimes people passively miss out on information simply because they never encounter it, but other times they actively choose not to learn something — even when it would be easy to find out and would clearly be useful. That second kind, the deliberate choice to stay in the dark, is what makes information avoidance so interesting.

Nolte's studies also found that people avoid information for many different reasons — to dodge emotional distress, sidestep a tough decision, save mental energy, protect a hopeful outlook, or avoid future regret. Interestingly, age doesn't predict this in a simple way. Older adults aren't automatically more likely to avoid information; it really depends on the specific situation and what matters most to them at the time.

Sometimes It's Not the Information — It's How It's Presented

Another interesting finding: people often don't want less information — they want it presented more simply. Research shows that people tend to make decisions based on the general "big picture" takeaway rather than a pile of precise numbers and details. So what looks like avoidance might actually just be a preference for a clear summary over an overwhelming wall of data. Give someone a short, meaningful version of the facts, and they may be perfectly willing to engage — even if they'd have avoided the same information buried in spreadsheets and statistics.

Avoidance Is Part of a Bigger Defense System

More recent research points out that avoiding information is just one tool in a larger toolkit people use to protect themselves from uncomfortable truths. If someone can't dodge the information itself, they might instead question whether the source is trustworthy, downplay how relevant it is to them, or dismiss what it implies. This matters because it means simply making information more available doesn't guarantee people will accept it — if the underlying urge to protect themselves is still there, they'll just find another way to push the information away.

Why This Matters More Than Ever

We live in a world overflowing with information — endless news, notifications, and algorithm-fed feeds all competing for our attention. Given that flood, being selective about what we pay attention to isn't just understandable, it's necessary. The real question isn't whether people avoid information anymore. It's which information they avoid, when, and why.

A Mix of Personality and Circumstance

Whether someone avoids information depends on both the moment they're in and who they are as a person.

In the moment, factors like how emotionally intense a situation is, how threatening it feels, how much uncertainty is involved, time pressure, mental overload, and social expectations can all push someone toward avoidance. Someone who eagerly checks their finances when things are going well might avoid the exact same information during a financial rough patch.

As a person, certain traits make some people more prone to avoidance across many areas of life — things like discomfort with uncertainty, anxiety, a strong need for quick closure, a tendency to sidestep emotions, optimism, confidence in one's own abilities, and general curiosity. These traits shape how threatening something feels and how someone chooses to cope with it.

Put simply: your circumstances decide when information starts to feel costly, and your personality shapes how you respond once it does.

What You Can Actually Do About It

Understanding why we avoid information is useful — but the real value comes in catching yourself doing it and making a better choice. Here are some practical takeaways:

Notice the difference between being busy and being avoidant. Ask yourself honestly: am I truly too busy to check this, or do I just not want to know the answer?

Weigh the cost of not knowing. A few minutes spent facing something today can prevent a much bigger problem down the road.

Not everything deserves your attention. It's fine — even healthy — to ignore clickbait, outrage-bait, and pointless social media arguments. But avoiding things that affect your health, money, relationships, or responsibilities is a different story, and much more costly.

Build a routine instead of waiting to "feel ready." Set a regular time each week to open bills, check your bank balance, or deal with medical results. A consistent habit reduces the emotional weight of these tasks and stops small problems from growing into big ones.

Swap fear for curiosity. Instead of dreading what information might reveal, ask what you might learn from it and what new options it opens up. Remember: information doesn't create problems — it just reveals ones that already exist, usually while there's still time to do something about them.

Don't mistake short-term relief for long-term well-being. Avoiding a problem might feel better right now, but it usually makes things harder later.

Make staying informed a habit, not a crisis response — check your finances regularly, follow reliable news in small doses, keep up with checkups, and ask questions when something's unclear.

Stick to trustworthy sources. When something feels confusing or overwhelming, lean on credible experts rather than rumors or sensational headlines. Quality matters more than quantity.

Talk it through with someone you trust. Processing difficult information with a friend, family member, or colleague can make it easier to handle and can offer perspective you might be missing on your own.

Accept that uncertainty is normal. Ignoring a hard truth doesn't make the uncertainty go away — but gathering more information, even incomplete information, usually helps you feel more in control.

Remember: information is a tool, not a verdict. Whether it's a diagnosis, a bank statement, or a performance review, its purpose is to help you understand where you stand and make a good decision — not to define or discourage you.

A simple daily check-in: before you put off learning something, ask yourself — Will this help my future? Will knowing help me make a better decision? Will waiting make things harder to fix? If the answer to any of these is yes, it's usually worth facing the information now rather than later.

 

References

Howell, J. L., & Shepperd, J. A. (2016). Establishing an information avoidance scale. Psychological Assessment, 28(12), 1695–1708.

Meese, W. B., Hua, J., & Howell, J. L. (2024). Information avoidance: An interchangeable strategy of self-protection. Social Science & Medicine, 354, 117065.

Nolte, J. (2023). The age of avoidance? The roles of context, cognition, and affect in adult age differences in decision avoidance (Doctoral dissertation, Cornell University).

Nolte, J., Deng, S. L., & Löckenhoff, C. E. (2021). Age differences in media consumption and avoidance with respect to COVID-19. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 77(4), e76–e82.

Nolte, J., Deng, S. L., & Löckenhoff, C. E. (2023). Information avoidance in consumer choice: Do avoidance tendencies and motives vary by age? Experimental Aging Research, 49(2), 112–129.

Nolte, J., Löckenhoff, C. E., & Reyna, V. F. (2022). The influence of verbatim versus gist formatting on younger and older adults' information acquisition and decision making. Psychology and Aging, 37(2), 197–209.

Sweeny, K., Melnyk, D., Miller, W., & Shepperd, J. A. (2010). Information avoidance: Who, what, when, and why. Review of General Psychology, 14(4), 340–353.

Your Sibling, Your Rival ?

Perhaps the greatest misconception about sibling rivalry is that it is largely a childhood problem that disappears with maturity. In reality, sibling rivalry often accompanies individuals throughout their entire lives. What changes is not the rivalry itself but the object of competition. For instance, often the toy fought over at age five becomes parental attention during adolescence, occupational success during adulthood, caregiving responsibilities in middle age, and inheritance after parents die. The psychological processes remain remarkably similar even though the circumstances differ.

Understanding sibling rivalry requires looking beneath the surface. Most disagreements between brothers and sisters are minimally, if at all, about the issue being argued. Instead, they represent the visible expression of deeper psychological processes involving identity, fairness, comparison, recognition, belonging, and self-worth.

As I have argued throughout all my writings (e.g., McCusker, 2026), every human behavior emerges from the interactions among very specific, defnable internal and external determinants. No single determinant explains sibling rivalry. Biological temperament, cognitive development, emotional regulation, personality, family structure, parental behavior, cultural expectations, socioeconomic circumstances, and life experiences continuously interact. Depending upon which determinants are most influential at a particular moment, siblings may become each other's greatest allies or lifelong competitors.

However, sibling rivalry is neither inevitable nor irreversible. Like most patterns of human behavior, it can be understood, anticipated, and modified. The most effective interventions are those that enlist ego strength, improve cognitive processing, reduce unnecessary comparisons, and increase emotional maturity. In other words, the solution lies less in changing our siblings than in changing how we interpret and respond to them.

Early Childhood: Competition for Survival

The earliest form of sibling rivalry is rooted in a child's perception that parental attention is a limited resource. Infants and toddlers possess neither the cognitive sophistication nor the emotional regulation necessary to appreciate that parents can love multiple children equally while attending to one child more than another at a given moment.

Developmentally, this perception is understandable. Young children think concretely rather than abstractly. If a parent spends twenty minutes comforting one child, the other child often concludes that the parent loves the sibling more. The conclusion is inaccurate but psychologically understandable.

Developmental psychologists have long recognized that secure attachment develops through consistent responsiveness rather than equal treatment (Bowlby, 1969/1982). Equality and fairness are not synonymous. Different children require different forms of parenting because they differ in temperament, maturity, and developmental needs.

Parents unintentionally intensify rivalry when they compare children. Statements such as "Why can't you behave like your sister?" or "Your brother never acted this way" appear harmless because they are intended to motivate improvement. Instead, they communicate that acceptance is contingent upon comparison. Once comparison becomes the family's standard of evaluation, children naturally begin comparing themselves as well.

Fortunately, this tendency can be modified. Parents should compare each child only to that  particular child's previous level of functioning. Improvement becomes the standard rather than superiority. Instead of praising one child for being "the smartest," parents might observe that "you worked much harder on your reading this week." Such statements reinforce growth rather than hierarchy.

Likewise, parents should deliberately schedule individual time with each child. Children who know they will receive predictable individual attention become less likely to compete for unpredictable attention. The objective is not equal minutes but perceived emotional availability.

Children also benefit from learning emotional vocabulary. Rather than punishing jealousy, parents can help children identify it. Naming emotions reduces their intensity by recruiting higher cortical processing rather than leaving behavior governed primarily by emotional reactivity (Siegel, 2012).

Middle Childhood: Achievement Becomes Identity

As children enter school, entirely new opportunities for comparison emerge. Academic performance, athletic ability, musical talent, popularity, appearance, and teacher approval become highly visible measures of competence. Parents often unintentionally reinforce these comparisons by emphasizing report cards, awards, or extracurricular accomplishments. During this developmental period children begin constructing their identities. They naturally ask themselves, "What am I good at?" Unfortunately, many answer a different question: "What am I better at than my sibling?"

Social comparison theory predicts exactly this phenomenon (Festinger, 1954). Human beings evaluate themselves by comparing themselves with similar others. Brothers and sisters provide perhaps the most accessible comparison group available.

Corrective strategies should therefore focus on reducing unnecessary comparisons while encouraging differentiated competence.  Every child should be encouraged to develop interests based upon genuine curiosity rather than competition. One child may enjoy mathematics while another prefers art. Problems arise only when parents implicitly rank these interests according to perceived prestige. The healthiest families celebrate excellence without requiring identical excellence.

Equally important is teaching children that another person's success does not diminish their own opportunities. Success is not a pie that becomes smaller as others receive larger pieces. This cognitive reframing represents one of the earliest forms of ego strengthening. Children who learn to admire excellence rather than resent it often become adults who collaborate rather than compete unnecessarily.

Adolescence: Identity Formation and Independence

Adolescence presents perhaps the greatest opportunity for sibling rivalry because identity formation becomes the central developmental task (Erikson, 1968).  Teenagers seek individuality. Ironically, many establish individuality by becoming the opposite of a sibling. If one sibling excels academically, another may reject academics entirely. If one becomes highly athletic, another may emphasize artistic pursuits. While differentiation often reduces direct competition, it sometimes becomes so extreme that siblings lose meaningful common ground.

Parents should encourage individuality without encouraging opposition.  Rather than defining children according to fixed characteristics—"the athlete," "the intellectual," "the responsible one"—parents should emphasize that identity remains flexible throughout life. Research on growth mindset demonstrates that individuals who view abilities as improvable experience greater resilience and less defensive behavior (Dweck, 2006).

Family discussions should likewise emphasize cooperation over competition. One practical strategy involves assigning collaborative responsibilities rather than competitive ones. Adolescents working together toward shared goals learn to evaluate one another as teammates rather than opponents.

Young Adulthood: Different Roads, Different Timetables

During young adulthood, comparisons shift toward educational attainment, occupational success, income, marriage, and social status. Modern society intensifies these comparisons through social media. Individuals rarely compare themselves with reality. Instead, they compare themselves with carefully edited versions of other people's lives. Siblings are not immune. One sibling becomes a physician, another a teacher. One marries at twenty-five, another at forty. One has children while another remains childless. Each life follows its own developmental trajectory, yet many families continue evaluating everyone according to identical standards.

Corrective strategies require recognizing that developmental timing varies enormously. Success should be evaluated according to progress toward personally meaningful goals rather than conformity to cultural expectations.

Families can encourage this perspective by asking different questions. Instead of asking, "Who earns more money?" they might ask, "Who has become more competent, more compassionate, or more fulfilled?" Notice that these questions redirect attention toward character development rather than status comparison. This shift represents strengthening cognition over emotional reactivity.

Middle Adulthood: The Return of Childhood

Many individuals are surprised to discover that sibling rivalry often intensifies during middle adulthood. The reason is straightforward. Aging parents reintroduce many of the emotional dynamics established during childhood. Questions suddenly emerge regarding caregiving, financial contributions, medical decision making, and inheritance. Old grievances frequently reappear. One sibling recalls being expected to assume responsibility while another remembers being overlooked. Each narrative contains elements of truth because each child experienced a somewhat different family.

Corrective strategies begin with acknowledging this reality. No two siblings grow up in precisely the same household because parents themselves continually change across time. Recognizing this simple fact reduces unnecessary arguments regarding whose memories are "correct." Both memories may be accurate from each individual's perspective.

Families also benefit from explicit communication before crises occur. Waiting until a parent becomes seriously ill often guarantees emotionally reactive decision making. Instead, siblings should discuss expectations years in advance. Who lives closest? Who possesses medical knowledge? Who has scheduling flexibility? Who can contribute financially?

Responsibilities should reflect practical realities rather than perceived fairness alone.  Equity often proves healthier than equality.

Later Life: Inheritance and Legacy

After parents die, unresolved sibling dynamics frequently become attached to inheritance. Ironically, arguments that appear to involve money usually involve something far more psychologically significant. Inheritance symbolizes recognition, appreciation, belonging, and love. A family heirloom may possess little monetary value yet enormous emotional value because it represents one's relationship with a deceased parent.

Corrective strategies begin by recognizing symbolism. Before disagreements escalate, siblings should ask themselves a simple question: "What does this object actually represent to me?" Often the answer has little to do with financial value. Open discussion regarding sentimental significance frequently uncovers solutions impossible to discover through legal negotiation alone. Likewise, parents can substantially reduce future conflict by explaining—not merely documenting—the reasoning behind estate decisions while they are still living. Transparency reduces ambiguity. Ambiguity fuels conflict.

The Central Role of Ego Strength

Throughout life, one psychological variable repeatedly determines whether sibling rivalry becomes constructive or destructive. That variable is ego strength. Individuals possessing strong ego strength can admire another person's accomplishments without interpreting them as personal failures.

Those possessing weaker ego strength often perceive another person's success as evidence of their own inadequacy. The objective circumstances may be identical. The interpretations differ dramatically. This distinction explains why two siblings raised in the same household may respond very differently to the same event. One sees inspiration. The other sees competition. The difference lies primarily in cognitive interpretation rather than external reality.

Strong ego strength allows individuals to tolerate temporary disappointment, regulate emotional reactions, appreciate delayed gratification, maintain perspective during conflict, and evaluate themselves according to internal standards rather than continual external comparison. These capacities are not inherited fully formed. They develop through repeated practice.

Practical Strategies for Every Family

Several evidence-based principles can reduce sibling rivalry regardless of age.

First, avoid comparisons whenever possible. Compare individuals with their own previous performance rather than with one another.

Second, praise effort, persistence, kindness, honesty, and cooperation more frequently than talent or outcomes. Character remains under greater voluntary control than natural ability.

Third, encourage shared experiences. Positive interactions accumulate just as negative interactions do. Families create emotional memories every day.

Fourth, distinguish fairness from sameness. Different children require different parenting. Explaining those differences reduces unnecessary assumptions regarding favoritism.

Fifth, communicate directly rather than through parents or other relatives. Triangulation magnifies misunderstanding.

Finally, continually strengthen ego strength.  Individuals with stronger ego strength require less external validation because they increasingly evaluate themselves according to internally chosen standards. They become capable of celebrating another person's accomplishments without feeling psychologically diminished. This may be the most effective antidote to sibling rivalry throughout the life span.

Conclusion

Sibling rivalry is not simply competition between brothers and sisters. It reflects universal psychological processes involving comparison, identity, belonging, recognition, and self-worth. Because these processes accompany human development from childhood through old age, opportunities for rivalry remain present throughout life.

Fortunately, rivalry need not define sibling relationships. The strongest families intentionally replace comparison with appreciation, competition with cooperation, resentment with understanding, and emotional reactivity with thoughtful reflection.

As I have emphasized throughout my work, every important decision should begin with a question: Which determinants are currently most influential, and are they helping or hurting the outcome? Sibling rivalry is no exception.

When personal insecurity, distorted cognition, emotional impulsivity, or unresolved family narratives become prepotent, conflict naturally follows. When stronger cognition, greater empathy, emotional regulation, and well-developed ego strength become dominant, rivalry gradually gives way to mutual respect.

Ultimately, siblings need not become competitors simply because they share parents. They can become lifelong allies if each develops sufficient psychological maturity to understand a profound truth: another person's success neither diminishes nor determines one's own worth. It merely provides another opportunity to celebrate the extraordinary diversity of human potential.

References

Adler, A. (1927). Understanding human nature. Greenberg.

Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Attachment (2nd ed.). Basic Books. (Original work published 1969)

Dweck, C. S. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. Random House.

Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. W. W. Norton.

Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7(2), 117–140.

McCusker, P. J. (2026).   Why You Are Who You Are: And Improving Who You Are.  Amazon

McHale, S. M., Updegraff, K. A., & Whiteman, S. D. (2012). Sibling relationships and influences in childhood and adolescence. Journal of Marriage and Family, 74(5), 913–930.

Siegel, D. J. (2012). The developing mind (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.

Volling, B. L. (Ed.). (2012). Sibling relationships. American Psychological Association.

Attention Before Intention

In contemporary society, much of our attention is passive. We don’t consciously, volitionally direct it. Instead, our attention is captured by something outside ourself. Everyone reading this blog post no doubt is acutely aware of the role of technology instruments (e.g., cell phones) and influencers (e.g., Joe Rogan) in this process. So I will not waste your time hashing this through again. Rather, let’s talk about other agents of our attention capture.

Attention is not merely a mental event. It is a biological, psychological, and social resource. Before we form intentions, make decisions, establish goals, or engage in purposeful behavior, something must first enter consciousness. That gateway is attention. What captures our attention today often determines our intentions tomorrow.

The common assumption is that human beings first decide what they value and then direct their attention accordingly. Increasingly, the reverse appears to be true. What repeatedly captures our attention gradually shapes what we value, believe, desire, and ultimately intend to pursue. In this sense, attention precedes intention.

One of the most powerful yet underappreciated agents of attention capture is novelty. Human beings evolved in environments where novel stimuli often signaled opportunity or danger. Consequently, our nervous systems remain exquisitely sensitive to anything unexpected, unusual, or emotionally provocative. This attentional bias served our ancestors well when survival depended upon quickly detecting predators, food sources, or social threats. In contemporary society, however, the same mechanism can be exploited by political movements, commercial interests, media organizations, and social institutions competing for our limited cognitive resources (Kahneman, 2011).

A second agent of attention capture is social validation. Human beings are profoundly social creatures. Throughout evolutionary history, exclusion from one's group often carried severe consequences. As a result, we naturally attend to signals indicating approval, disapproval, status, belonging, and reputation. Much of what attracts our attention in everyday life has little to do with objective importance and much to do with social significance. A celebrity's opinion, a neighbor's behavior, or a colleague's success may occupy more of our mental space than matters that are objectively more consequential simply because they carry social information relevant to our standing within a group (Baumeister & Leary, 1995).

Fear and threat represent a third major attentional magnet. Neuroscientific research demonstrates that threatening information receives preferential processing within the brain. Negative events, potential losses, and signs of danger command attention more readily than neutral or positive stimuli (LeDoux, 2012). This negativity bias helps explain why alarming headlines, catastrophic predictions, and emotionally charged narratives often dominate public discourse. The issue is not merely that such information exists. The issue is that our brains are predisposed to notice it, remember it, and repeatedly revisit it.

Another powerful attention-capturing force is personal identity. We are naturally drawn toward information that confirms who we believe ourselves to be. A person's political beliefs, professional role, religious commitments, social affiliations, and self-concept create filters through which attention is selectively allocated. We notice information that supports our existing identities and often overlook information that challenges them. Consequently, attention is not entirely determined by external forces. It is also shaped by the internal narratives through which we interpret ourselves and the world around us (McAdams, 2018).

Attention is similarly influenced by unfinished business. Psychologists have long observed that incomplete tasks and unresolved problems remain cognitively active. The mind tends to revisit unfinished matters because closure has not yet been achieved. This phenomenon, often referred to as the Zeigarnik effect, helps explain why unresolved conflicts, unanswered questions, and incomplete projects continue to occupy mental bandwidth long after they initially arise (Baumeister & Bushman, 2021).

Perhaps the most important implication is that attention functions as a precursor to information processing. We cannot think about what we do not notice. We cannot evaluate information that never enters awareness. We cannot make decisions about alternatives that fail to capture our attention. Before cognition, judgment, and decision-making occur, attention determines what information receives access to the psychological system.

This observation has profound implications for personal development. Most self-improvement programs focus on changing intentions. They encourage individuals to establish goals, develop plans, and strengthen motivation. While these strategies have merit, they often overlook a more fundamental question: What is capturing your attention every day? If attention is repeatedly directed toward fear, distraction, status competition, and trivial concerns, intentions will likely emerge from those sources. Conversely, if attention is directed toward learning, meaningful relationships, health, and long-term goals, intentions will be shaped accordingly. The more fully you understand yourself, the better able you are to direct your attention, process information, make rational decisions, and constructively relate interpersonally. All my books have addressed these issues in one form or another. For instance, the issues are directly addressed in my book just released on June 30^th, 2026 entitled, Why You Are Who You are: And Improving Who You Are.

The practical lesson from today’s blog post, previous blog posts, and published books is straightforward:  If you wish to improve your decisions, begin by examining your attention. Before asking what you intend to do, ask what consistently captures your awareness. The quality of your intentions may depend less upon your willpower than upon the attentional environment in which those intentions are formed. In many respects, attention is the architect and intention is merely the blueprint that follows. 

References

Baumeister, R. F., & Bushman, B. J. (2021). Social psychology and human nature (5th ed.). Cengage Learning.

Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 497–529. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497

Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.

LeDoux, J. (2012). Rethinking the emotional brain. Neuron, 73(4), 653–676. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2012.02.004

McAdams, D. P. (2018). The strange case of Donald J. Trump: A psychological reckoning. Oxford University Press.

McCusker, P. J. (2026)            Why You Are Who You Are: And Improving Who You Are  Amazon

McCusker, P. J. (2026)            Clear Thoughts, Rational Decisions - Inextricably Intertwined    Amazon

McCusker, P. J. (2025)            Weaponized Communication - Improvised Explosive Devices    Amazon

McCusker, P. J. (2023)            Questioning & Answering - How, Who, When, & Where     Amazon

McCusker, P. J. (2019)            Justifiably Paranoid - Resisting Intrusive and Malicious Influences  Amazon

McCusker, P. J. (2016)            Don't Rest in Peace :Activity-Oriented, Integrated Physical & Mental Health Amazon

McCusker, P. J. (2004)            Conversation: Striving, Surviving, and Thriving: Searching for Messages and Relationships    Amazon

Current Benefits That Incur Future Harms

As usual, this blogpost underscores the inextricable link between physical and mental well-being.  Let's start with the former.

Pleiotropy is a physiological phenomenon wherein a single gene controls multiple traits. One variant is “antagonistic pleiotropy” in which a gene that produced beneficial effects on fitness early in life causes harmful effects later. Some biologists, in fact, have suggested that it is at least partly responsible for aging and senescence. The notion is that the gene in question has endured and been passed on because it facilitated early-life reproduction, even if it was harmful later.

What is striking, however, is how readily this biological logic extends into the psychological domain. One need not posit genes explicitly to see a parallel structure at work in human development. A psychological trait, habit pattern, or social advantage can function in a pleiotropic manner—conferring early benefits while quietly undermining longer-term growth. In this sense, we might speak of a form of psychological antagonistic pleiotropy: a configuration in which early reinforcement, success, or adaptation produces downstream costs that only become visible with time.

Consider the socially popular child in grade school. Popularity, like any reinforcing stimulus, shapes behavior. The child who is admired, sought after, and continually rewarded with attention develops a sense of ease in social navigation. This early success bolsters self-esteem and reduces immediate pressures to cultivate alternative competencies. Time that might otherwise be spent struggling through academic material is instead allocated to maintaining and enjoying social standing. The reinforcement schedule is powerful and immediate; the costs of intellectual underdevelopment are delayed and abstract. By the time the environment shifts—when academic or professional demands require sustained cognitive effort—the earlier trade-off becomes apparent. What once functioned as an adaptive advantage now reveals itself as a constraint.

A similar dynamic can be observed in the case of the gifted athlete. Exceptional athletic ability often brings recognition, structure, and identity. It can organize a young person’s life around discipline and achievement, but it can also narrow developmental bandwidth. When success is concentrated in one domain, other aspects of the self—intellectual curiosity, emotional complexity, vocational exploration—may remain comparatively underdeveloped. If circumstances change, whether through injury, aging, or simple statistical reality, the individual may find that the very trait that once secured status has limited adaptability in other times and arenas. The early benefit carries with it an implicit opportunity cost.

These patterns are not limited to popularity or athletics. High verbal fluency in childhood, for instance, may allow a person to “talk their way through” challenges, reducing the necessity of deeper analytic thinking. Early attractiveness can yield social and professional advantages that inadvertently discourage the development of resilience or persistence. Even conscientiousness, typically regarded as an unqualified virtue, can become maladaptive when it hardens into rigidity, constraining creativity and openness to new experience. In each case, the trait operates across multiple domains, producing a constellation of effects—some advantageous, others limiting—depending on developmental timing and environmental demands.

What ties these examples together is a common structure: early reinforcement biases the allocation of time, energy, and identity. Just as natural selection privileges early-life reproductive success, psychological systems privilege immediately rewarded behaviors. The individual, often without awareness, “invests” in what works now. Over time, however, environments change, and the very investments that once yielded returns may produce diminishing or even negative outcomes. The organism—biological and/or  psychological—is always adapting to the current situation/context, but not always with foresight.

This perspective aligns with broader principles in developmental psychology and behavioral psychology, both of which emphasize that behavior is shaped by contingencies that are often local and immediate rather than global and long-term. It also echoes insights from Daniel Kahneman, whose work illustrates how human judgment tends to overweight present rewards and underweight future consequences (Kahneman, 2011). In this way, psychological antagonistic pleiotropy can be understood as an emergent property of ordinary learning processes interacting with shifting developmental contexts.

The practical implication is not that early advantages are to be avoided, but that they are to be contextualized. Any strength, if over-relied upon, can become a liability. The task of development is, therefore, not merely to capitalize on what comes easily, but to recognize the potential narrowing effects of early success. A well-rounded trajectory requires deliberate counterbalancing—an intentional cultivation of capacities that are not immediately rewarded but are essential for long-term adaptability.

The analogy to antagonistic pleiotropy underscores a sobering but useful truth: what serves us well now may, under different conditions, work against us. The challenge is to develop enough reflective distance to see these patterns as they are forming, rather than only after their costs have been incurred.  Look at what is in front of you, but periodically glance down the road.

                                                                            References

Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.

Williams, G. C. (1957). Pleiotropy, natural selection, and the evolution of senescence. Evolution, 11(4), 398–411.

Think Logomachy

Every day we hear that "people cannot talk to each other anymore.” The complaint is usually framed politically, but it also appears in discussions about science, education, parenting, religion, economics, and even ordinary family disagreements. Persons increasingly seem to occupy separate realities. One side insists the other is irrational, immoral, ignorant, or dishonest. The other side says exactly the same thing back.

There are, of course, many reasons for this problem. Cognitive biases, media incentives, tribal identity, emotional reasoning, and social media algorithms all contribute. In previous writing, I discussed the Jingle-Jangle Fallacy—the tendency either to assume two things are different because they have different names (jangle) or to assume they are the same because they share a name (jingle). The Jingle-Jangel Fallacy is merely one version of a larger, more substantial problem that deserves much more public attention: logomachy.

Logomachy is not a term most people use in daily conversation, but they experience it constantly. The word refers to a dispute about words rather than substance. It occurs when people appear to disagree fundamentally, but much of the conflict actually stems from differing definitions, emotional associations, or linguistic framing rather than from genuinely incompatible ideas. In other words, people often fight over labels while believing they are fighting over reality.

The Hidden Problem Beneath Many Arguments

A remarkable number of arguments collapse when the participants are forced to define their terms carefully. Consider how often people use words such as “freedom,” “fairness,” “equity,” “science,” “trauma,” “violence,” “privilege,” “capitalism,” “socialism,” “truth,” or even “love” without realizing that the listener may attach a very different meaning to the same word.  People may use identical language while referring to entirely different concepts. Conversely, they may use different language while describing essentially the same idea. This is precisely where logomachy becomes dangerous. Participants believe they are debating facts when they are actually debating vocabulary.

The philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein argued that many philosophical disputes arise because language itself confuses us (Wittgenstein, 1953). Similarly, psychologist Steven Pinker (2007) noted that people frequently mistake verbal disagreement for conceptual disagreement because human language compresses complicated realities into imperfect labels.  The result is conversational chaos. Let’s consider some everyday examples.

“Defund the Police”

For some people, the phrase “defund the police” meant abolishing police departments entirely. For others, it meant reallocating some funding toward mental health services, addiction treatment, and community intervention programs. Notice what happened. Many people never actually debated policy specifics. Instead, they reacted emotionally to the wording itself. One side heard “lawlessness.” The other heard “reform.” The argument became linguistic rather than practical.

“Trauma”

In clinical psychology, trauma traditionally referred to deeply distressing experiences capable of overwhelming a person’s coping mechanisms. Increasingly, however, the term is sometimes used more broadly to describe ordinary emotional discomfort or disappointment. As definitions expand, communication becomes difficult. One person may hear the word “trauma” and think of combat exposure, assault, or catastrophic abuse. Another may mean invalidation or transient emotional discomfort. The disagreement may not be about significant suffering is experienced. It may instead concern where the conceptual boundaries of the word should lie.

“Science Says”

Science is a method, not a political tribe. Yet the phrase “trust the science” sometimes functions rhetorically as though science were a fixed authority rather than an evolving process of hypothesis testing, replication, and revision. One person using the phrase may mean “respect evidence.” Another may hear “do not question experts.” Again, conflict emerges from linguistic interpretation instead of factual disagreement.

Family Arguments

Logomachy is not limited to public discourse. Imagine a husband saying, “You never listen to me.” The wife responds defensively because she interprets “listen” literally. She heard every word. But what he actually means is, “I do not feel emotionally understood.” The argument escalates because both individuals are debating different meanings of the word “listen.” This happens constantly in marriages, friendships, and workplaces.

Logomachy Has Become Worse

Modern communication environments amplify linguistic conflict for several reasons:

Social Media Rewards Simplification

Algorithms reward emotionally charged, compressed language. Nuance travels poorly online. Ambiguous slogans spread faster than carefully defined concepts. Short phrases become tribal signals rather than vehicles for precise communication.

Identity Fusion

Words increasingly function as markers of group identity. Certain terms signal whether one belongs to a particular political, intellectual, or moral tribe. Once language becomes identity-based, changing terminology feels psychologically threatening. People defend words not merely because they are accurate, but because they symbolize belonging.

Emotional Loading of Language

Many modern terms acquire strong emotional associations. Once emotionally loaded, words cease functioning primarily as descriptive tools and instead become triggers. Research in affective neuroscience demonstrates that emotionally charged stimuli can reduce reflective reasoning and increase reactive processing (LeDoux, 1996). Thus, certain words immediately activate defensiveness before substantive discussion even begins.

The Psychological Cost of Logomachy

Persistent logomachy produces several harmful effects. First, it creates the illusion that disagreement is larger than it actually is. Two people may agree on 80 percent of a problem while believing they agree on nothing. Second, it increases cynicism. When conversations repeatedly fail, people begin assuming others are irrational or malicious rather than linguistically misaligned. Third, it weakens problem-solving. If discussions remain trapped at the level of labels, societies struggle to address underlying realities. Finally, logomachy increases polarization because linguistic tribes harden over time. People become attached not merely to ideas, but to preferred vocabularies.

How to Cope With Logomachy

The good news is that recognizing logomachy immediately improves communication. Once you understand the phenomenon, you begin hearing conversations differently.

1. Define Terms Early

One of the most useful conversational habits is simply asking: “What do you mean by that word?” This sounds deceptively simple, but it is extraordinarily powerful. If someone says, “That policy is unfair,” ask what “fair” means to them. Equality of opportunity? Equality of outcome? Merit-based allocation? Need-based allocation? Definitions reveal assumptions.

2. Translate Rather Than Attack

Often, opposing groups are partially describing the same reality using different vocabularies. For example: One person says, “People need personal responsibility.” Another says, “People need structural support.”  These ideas are not necessarily contradictory. Human behavior is influenced both by personal choices and environmental conditions. A translator mindset is more productive than a prosecutor mindset.

3. Separate Labels From Underlying Reality

Ask yourself: “If we removed the emotionally loaded words, what concrete issue are we actually discussing?” This technique reduces emotional reactivity and clarifies substance. For instance, instead of debating whether something is “socialist,” specify the exact policy proposal: taxation level, healthcare structure, market regulation, or welfare mechanism. Concrete descriptions reduce semantic warfare.

4. Watch for Category Expansion

Words often gradually expand beyond their original meanings. Psychologists call this “concept creep” (Haslam, 2016). Terms such as “abuse,” “addiction,” “trauma,” and “violence” have broadened considerably over time. Sometimes this expansion is helpful because it recognizes previously overlooked suffering. Other times, excessive expansion reduces conceptual precision. Being aware of concept creep helps maintain clarity.

5. Practice Intellectual Charity

Before arguing against someone’s statement, try restating it in a way they would recognize as fair. This habit alone can transform conversations. Too often, people respond not to what another person meant, but to the most extreme interpretation imaginable. Intellectual charity reduces unnecessary conflict and exposes genuine disagreements more accurately.

6. Ask for Examples

Abstract words generate abstract confusion. Concrete examples generate clarity. If someone says, “Society is becoming unsafe,” ask for specific examples. If someone says, “This policy is oppressive,” ask what outcomes they specifically fear. Examples anchor language in observable reality.

The Larger Lesson

Human beings do not experience reality directly. We experience reality filtered through language, concepts, memory, emotion, and culture. Language is indispensable, but it is also imperfect.  Words are maps, not territory.

Danger arises when people mistake verbal conflict for actual understanding. Entire arguments can persist for years because participants never realize they are using the same words differently—or different words similarly. Recognizing logomachy does not eliminate disagreement. Some disagreements are real and profound. But it dramatically reduces unnecessary conflict created merely by semantic confusion.

In a culture increasingly addicted to outrage, clarity itself becomes a form of wisdom. And perhaps one of the most useful questions we can ask in any difficult conversation is this: “Before we argue, are we even talking about the same thing?”

References

Haslam, N. (2016). Concept creep: Psychology’s expanding concepts of harm and pathology. Psychological Inquiry, 27(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2016.1082418

LeDoux, J. (1996). The emotional brain: The mysterious underpinnings of emotional life. Simon & Schuster.

Pinker, S. (2007). The stuff of thought: Language as a window into human nature. Viking.

Wittgenstein, L. (1953). Philosophical investigations. Blackwell.

 

 

 

Default Could Be Your Fault

We often behave by default. In fact, there is a brain neurological structure called the Default Mode Network (DMN). It is an extensive collection of interacting brain regions most active when we are engaged in internal, self-oriented, rather than external, world-oriented thought. Consider the DMN as the region activated during wakeful rest, introspection, and mind-wandering.

In a positive mood, the default mode can be your best friend. In a negative mood, it can be your worst enemy.

When the mind is left unattended, it usually drifts toward its dominant emotional and cognitive habits. The DMN does not create thoughts out of nowhere. Rather, it amplifies what is already psychologically available. If your life is filled with gratitude, purpose, competence, meaningful relationships, and intellectual curiosity, then periods of mental drifting often become creative, restorative, and psychologically enriching. However, if your mind is saturated with resentment, anxiety, insecurity, regret, or bitterness, the DMN can become a repetitive echo chamber of emotional pain.

In many ways, the DMN functions like a psychological “home screen.” Whatever programs are most practiced become the automatic default. The brain economizes effort by repeatedly activating familiar pathways. This is one reason why habits—both healthy and unhealthy—become increasingly automatic over time. Repeated thoughts strengthen neural networks through neuroplasticity. In effect, the brain becomes better at whatever it repeatedly does (Doidge, 2007).

This helps explain why two individuals can experience the same external event yet react in profoundly different ways. One person may interpret adversity as a challenge to overcome. Another may interpret it as proof of helplessness or victimization. Over time, these interpretations become increasingly automatic. Eventually, they no longer feel like interpretations at all. They simply feel like “reality.”

The danger is that people frequently assume their default reactions are objective truths rather than conditioned mental habits. A pessimistic person may sincerely believe he is “just being realistic.” A chronically angry person may believe outrage is moral clarity. A catastrophizing individual may believe constant worry is responsibility. Yet many of these reactions are simply overlearned default patterns reinforced through repetition.

Solitude affects people differently at least in part due to the DMN.  Some individuals flourish when alone because their internal psychological environment is stimulating, organized, hopeful, and emotionally meaningful. Others dread being alone because silence exposes the chaos of their own internal dialogue. Blaise Pascal once observed that many of humanity’s problems arise from our inability to sit quietly in a room alone. Modern neuroscience suggests he may have been describing the consequences of an unmanaged default mode network.

The DMN, obviously, is neither inherently good or bad. It contributes to autobiographical memory, imagination, future planning, creativity, moral reasoning, and identity formation (Buckner et al., 2008). Many of humanity’s greatest creative insights likely emerged during periods of mind-wandering and reflective thought. The problem is not the existence of the default mode. The problem is the quality of what occupies it.

The practical question therefore becomes: How does one cultivate a healthier default mode network?

First, cognitive input matters. The brain is shaped by repeated exposure. If you constantly immerse yourself in outrage-based media, tribal conflict, fear-inducing narratives, and social comparison, your default mental state will increasingly mirror those inputs. Psychological nutrition matters just as much as physical nutrition. What you repeatedly consume mentally becomes incorporated into your emotional baseline.

Second, purposeful activity matters. Human beings generally do poorly when drifting without structure for prolonged periods. Meaningful work, intellectual engagement, hobbies, volunteering, exercise, and social connection provide stabilizing frameworks that reduce maladaptive rumination. An idle mind often becomes a breeding ground for negative recursive thinking.

Third, relationships matter enormously. The emotional tone of the people surrounding you gradually becomes internalized. Chronic exposure to cynical, hostile, chronically anxious, or perpetually victimized individuals subtly reshapes one’s own default cognitive style. Conversely, psychologically resilient individuals often “lend” emotional regulation to those around them. Emotional states are socially contagious.

Fourth, attentional training matters. Practices such as mindfulness meditation appear capable of reducing maladaptive self-referential rumination by altering activity within the DMN itself (Brewer et al., 2011). Mindfulness does not eliminate thought. Rather, it changes one’s relationship to thought. Instead of becoming trapped inside every passing emotion or narrative, one learns to observe thoughts without automatically identifying with them.

Fifth, physical health matters more than many people realize. Sleep deprivation, sedentary behavior, chronic stress, inflammation, alcohol misuse, and poor diet all impair emotional regulation and cognitive flexibility. The brain is a biological organ. Psychological resilience is partly physiological resilience.

Finally, one of the most effective ways to cultivate a healthier default mode is through intentional gratitude and constructive reflection. This is not naïve positivity or denial of hardship. Rather, it is the deliberate strengthening of neural pathways associated with appreciation, competence, hope, and meaning. The brain tends to scan for what it repeatedly rehearses. If you continually rehearse grievance, grievance becomes easier to find. If you continually rehearse gratitude, opportunity, and meaning, those become easier to perceive as well. Over time, the mind increasingly becomes what it repeatedly practices. In this sense, your defaults eventually become your destiny.

References

Brewer, J. A., Worhunsky, P. D., Gray, J. R., Tang, Y. Y., Weber, J., & Kober, H. (2011). Meditation experience is associated with differences in default mode network activity and connectivity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(50), 20254–20259. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1112029108

Buckner, R. L., Andrews‐Hanna, J. R., & Schacter, D. L. (2008). The brain’s default network: Anatomy, function, and relevance to disease. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1124(1), 1–38. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1440.011

Doidge, N. (2007). The brain that changes itself: Stories of personal triumph from the frontiers of brain science. Viking.

 

Your Personalities?

Last weekend I spoke to a neighbor, Bob, about my new book, Clear Thoughts, Rational Decisions. He said the ideas made sense to him because he was struggling with his son, Harry. Their conversations had become tense and confusing. Bob felt they misunderstood each other’s motives, and he worried that Harry’s personality had changed for the worse.

That conversation inspired this blog, since it was consistent with an article that I had explained in my book.

Two psychologists, Colin J. Lee and Emorie D. Beck, published research in 2026 suggesting that personality is not fixed. Instead, personality is something we express moment by moment through thoughts, feelings, and actions.

Using thousands of real-time reports from participants, they found that each person shows a unique pattern. We may react differently depending on the situation—at work, with family, under stress, or when relaxed—but there is still a recognizable “signature” to how we behave. In other words, personality is both stable and flexible.

This is an important shift in both professional and layperson thinking. Many people treat personality as a label: shy, outgoing, disciplined, anxious, stubborn. But these labels can be misleading. A person may be organized in one setting and careless in another. Someone may seem patient with friends but irritable at home. What matters is not just traits, but patterns.

That idea supports a central theme of Clear Thoughts, Rational Decisions: self-understanding begins with noticing your own habits in real time.

For example:

• Do you become defensive when criticized about your reliability?
• Do you procrastinate when anticipating a long term project?
• Do you think more clearly early in the day as opposed to later?
• Are you kinder to strangers than to family members?

When we notice these recurring patterns, we gain power over them.

A fixed view of personality can lead to resignation: “That’s just how I am.” A dynamic view creates opportunity: “This is what I tend to do, and I can change it.”

That is where personal agency begins. We do not need to erase our personality. We need to understand it well enough to guide it. If you know stress makes you impatient, you can pause before reacting. If you know structure improves your focus, you can build routines. If you know certain people trigger anger or insecurity, you can prepare yourself differently.

So Bob may not be seeing a completely “new” Harry. He may be seeing Harry under new pressures, in a new life stage, expressing parts of himself that were always there but now showing differently, perhaps more intensely or more frequently.

The same is true for all of us. We are not statues carved in stone. We are patterns in motion.

Cognitive freedom comes from learning to read those patterns—moment by moment, situation by situation—until they become tools instead of blind forces.

As is obvious, I tend to endorse and accept the Colin J. Lee and Emorie D. Beck study results—for now.  I am inclined to believe that every person exhibits their own multivariate “signature”—a recurring pattern of personality expressions that shifts with context but remains recognizably theirs. However, the particulars of the study warrant careful consideration. Although it was conducted drawing on more than fifteen thousand momentary reports from two undergraduate samples and used experimental  modeling, the limited study sample and limited age range makes replication and use of diverse research participants essential.

                                                                        Reference

 Idiographic momentary profiles of personality facets. Lee, Colin J. , Beck, Emorie D.  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol 130(1), Jan 2026, 160-185

Indifference, Ignorance, Engagement, and Enlightenment

Human beings naturally oscillate among states of indifference, ignorance, engagement, and enlightenment. Each of these states carries potential benefits and drawbacks, especially with respect to one’s sense of comfort. Indifference can be psychologically protective, shielding people from distressing information; ignorance can simplify life by reducing cognitive load; engagement can provide meaning and agency; and enlightenment can offer clarity, ethical insight, and informed direction.

Yet comfort does not necessarily equate to what is best—either for an individual or for society.

In everyday life, the tension between comfort and what is ultimately beneficial shows up in quiet, almost invisible ways. Consider the person who avoids opening a medical test result because “no news feels better than bad news.” In that moment, ignorance provides relief. Anxiety is held at bay, and the individual can proceed with the day undisturbed. But the longer-term cost may be delayed treatment or missed opportunity for early intervention. Research on health behavior consistently shows that avoidance coping—choosing not to know—reduces immediate distress but is associated with poorer long-term outcomes (Sweeny et al., 2010). What feels comforting in the moment can quietly undermine future well-being.

A similar pattern emerges in financial decision-making. Many individuals do not regularly check their retirement accounts during volatile markets. This indifference protects them from emotional swings tied to daily fluctuations. Indeed, behavioral economists such as Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky demonstrated that people are loss-averse; losses feel more painful than equivalent gains feel pleasurable (Kahneman & Tversky, 1979). Avoiding information about losses can therefore preserve emotional equilibrium. Yet sustained disengagement may also lead to missed opportunities to rebalance investments or correct poor financial habits. Again, comfort trades off with competence.

Even in interpersonal relationships, the lure of comfort can quietly distort judgment. It is often easier to remain indifferent to subtle but recurring problems—an inconsistency in a partner’s behavior, a growing emotional distance, or unspoken resentment—than to engage directly. Addressing such issues requires emotional effort, vulnerability, and the risk of conflict. Indifference, in contrast, allows the relationship to continue without immediate disruption. However, over time, what was ignored tends to accumulate. As John Gottman has shown, small unresolved issues can compound into patterns that predict relational breakdown (Gottman & Levenson, 2000). The short-term comfort of “not making a big deal out of it” can lead to long-term instability.

Engagement, by contrast, is often uncomfortable precisely because it requires effort and confrontation with complexity. A person who decides to understand their medical condition, learn the details of their financial situation, or have a difficult conversation is voluntarily stepping out of the protective buffer of ignorance or indifference. Yet this discomfort is often productive. It aligns with what psychologists describe as “active coping,” which is associated with better adjustment and outcomes over time (Carver & Connor-Smith, 2010). The individual sacrifices immediate ease for longer-term control and resilience.

Enlightenment—understood not in a mystical sense but as a state of informed awareness—introduces a different kind of discomfort. To know more is to see more, including ambiguity, trade-offs, and sometimes unsettling truths. A person who becomes well-informed about nutrition, for example, may find grocery shopping more complicated, not less. The simple pleasure of eating without thought is replaced by an awareness of ingredients, long-term health implications, and conflicting dietary advice. Similarly, someone who becomes informed about global issues such as climate change or geopolitical tensions may experience a heightened sense of concern or even moral burden. Knowledge expands responsibility. As Socrates is often paraphrased, wisdom begins with the recognition of one’s own ignorance—a realization that can be more disquieting than comforting.

What becomes evident across these examples is that the human tendency to gravitate toward comfort is not inherently misguided; it is adaptive in the short term. Cognitive and emotional resources are finite, and constant engagement with every possible concern would be overwhelming. The challenge lies in calibrating when comfort serves a restorative function and when it becomes a form of avoidance that undermines well-being.

In practical terms, this calibration often requires small, deliberate acts of engagement. Opening the medical test result rather than postponing it. Reviewing a bank statement instead of ignoring it. Asking a clarifying question in a conversation that feels slightly off. These are not grand gestures of enlightenment but incremental shifts away from passive comfort toward active awareness. Over time, such shifts accumulate into a more informed and resilient way of navigating life.

Ultimately, the movement from indifference and ignorance toward engagement and enlightenment is not linear or permanent. People cycle through these states depending on context, stress, and capacity. The goal is not to eliminate comfort but to recognize its limits. Comfort can soothe, but it can also sedate. And when it sedates too effectively, it dulls the very awareness needed to respond to reality as it is rather than as one might prefer it to be.

The question is not whether comfort is good or bad, but whether it is timely and proportionate. When comfort follows effort, it restores. When it replaces effort, it constrains. The distinction is subtle in the moment but profound over the long term.  Agency requires effort. And your agency determines whether you are in control or are being controlled by outside forces and persons.

References

Carver, C. S., & Connor-Smith, J. (2010). Personality and coping. Annual Review of Psychology, 61, 679–704.

Gottman, J. M., & Levenson, R. W. (2000). The timing of divorce: Predicting when a couple will divorce over a 14-year period. Journal of Marriage and Family, 62(3), 737–745.

Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1979). Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica, 47(2), 263–291.

Sweeny, K., Melnyk, D., Miller, W., & Shepperd, J. A. (2010). Information avoidance: Who, what, when, and why. Review of General Psychology, 14(4), 340–353.

Conversation Contagion

Social contagion theory suggests  that thoughts, emotions, and behaviors spread through social interaction much like a virus. It proposes that people “catch” attitudes, moods, and interpretive frames from those around them through subtle mechanisms such as mimicry, emotional attunement, shared attention, and the human tendency to align with the norms of a group. In this view, a conversation is not simply an exchange of information but a transmission event in which one person’s affective stance can shift another’s outlook, sometimes within minutes. The theory helps explain why pessimism, enthusiasm, anxiety, or hope can propagate through families, workplaces, and communities, shaping the psychological climate in ways individuals may not consciously recognize.

So, at least in the short term, talking with another person can alter your mental status. Mood, interpretive frame, and even the felt sense of what is possible can shift simply through exposure to another mind. Because of this, it becomes essential to think carefully about the conversational partners we allow into our cognitive environment. The mind is not sealed; it is permeable, suggestible, and shaped by the emotional and interpretive habits of those around us. Conversations are not neutral exchanges of information but reciprocal regulatory events that can either stabilize or destabilize our internal state.

A study by Kevin Eschleman and colleagues (2015) illustrates this dynamic with unusual clarity. They examined individuals high in what they termed “dispositional negativism,” a trait‑level tendency to evaluate a wide range of stimuli through a pessimistic or cynical lens. What is striking about their findings is the breadth of the negativity. It was not limited to personally relevant issues or emotionally charged topics. Instead, these individuals expressed sour evaluations of architecture, vacations, soccer, and even fictional consumer products. The negativity was not reactive; it was ambient. It colored everything.

When one interacts with people who carry this kind of globalized pessimism, the effects can be subtle but cumulative. Conversations with individuals who chronically devalue experiences, possibilities, and ideas can reinforce any latent tendencies toward negativity in oneself. Over time, this can shift your baseline interpretive stance. The person who begins the relationship with a relatively balanced outlook may find that their own cognitive habits drift toward the same global devaluation. This is not because the other person “convinces” them of anything in a rational sense, but because emotional tone is contagious. Interpretive frames are socially transmitted. The mind calibrates itself to the emotional climate it inhabits.

Low self‑esteem compounds this effect. Individuals who chronically doubt their own worth or competence often express their insecurity through pessimistic predictions, self‑protective cynicism, or anticipatory disappointment. These conversational patterns can create a relational field in which negativity becomes the default mode of engagement. If you are not attentive, one can begin to internalize this stance, gradually becoming the kind of person others avoid and, eventually, the kind of person one avoids in oneself. The danger is not dramatic but incremental. It is the slow erosion of one’s interpretive generosity and emotional openness.

The broader implication is that conversational life is a form of psychological hygiene. Just as one is mindful of diet, sleep, and physical environment, one must also be mindful of the emotional and cognitive environments created by relationships. Conversations can elevate or diminish, clarify or distort, energize or deplete. They can reinforce one’s agency or subtly undermine it. Recognizing this does not require withdrawing from those who struggle with negativity, but it does require awareness of the interpersonal forces that shape your mental life. To cultivate a stable and constructive inner world, choose conversational partners with discernment, understanding that every exchange is, in some sense, an intervention in one’s own cognitive ecology.

A positive discussion often reveals how quickly another person’s interpretive frame can broaden your own. Imagine talking with a colleague who has a grounded sense of agency and a habit of noticing what is workable rather than what is broken. You mention a project that has stalled, expecting the usual sympathetic sigh. Instead, she listens carefully, asks a clarifying question, and identifies one small, actionable step you had overlooked. Her tone is steady, her interest genuine, and her comments implicitly affirm your competence. By the end of the conversation, your mood has shifted. The problem has not disappeared, but your sense of efficacy has returned. You walk away with a clearer mind and a more constructive orientation toward the day. This is the kind of interpersonal exchange that stabilizes mental status rather than distorting it.

A negative discussion shows the opposite pattern. Picture a conversation with someone who carries chronic self‑doubt and a trait‑level pessimism of the sort Eschleman et al. (2015) describe. You mention the same stalled project, and before you finish the sentence, the other person responds with a global dismissal: “Nothing ever works out in that department anyway.” When you offer a possible solution, they counter with a list of reasons it will fail. Their tone is resigned, their posture closed, and their comments subtly imply that your efforts are naïve. Even if you entered the conversation in a neutral or mildly frustrated state, you leave it feeling heavier, more doubtful, and vaguely irritated with yourself. Nothing in the situation has changed, but your interpretive frame has been pulled toward their habitual negativity. This is how conversational environments can erode one’s mental status in small but cumulative increments.

Conversations are not merely exchanges of information but interpersonal regulatory events. They can either reinforce your well-being or undermine it, depending on the person across from you.  The lesson is obvious: choose your conversational partners carefully, maximizing your time with positive people and minimizing your time with negative ones.

 

REFERENCE

Eschleman, K. J., Bowling, N. A., & LaHuis, D. M. (2015). The dispositional basis of attitudes: A meta‑analytic review. Personality and Individual Differences, 75, 120–128. 

Does It Give You the Chills ?

If it’s cold enough, everyone becomes chilly. But everyone does not get aesthetic chills—the intense, shiver‑like wave that races across the body, especially the skin, usually in response to beauty created by nature or humanity. Researchers estimate that as much as 35 percent of the population does not experience frisson, the technical term for these aesthetic chills (Harrison & Loui, 2014).

I deliberately used the phrase "get aesthetic chills" to emphasize that frisson is triggered outside the self. It is not a mood, not a personality trait, not a free‑floating emotional state. It is a response to a stimulus—a sight, a sound, a moment—when something in the world reaches into the nervous system and pulls a lever we did not consciously know existed. Frisson is a physiological event, but it is also a cognitive one. It requires perception, appraisal, meaning, and a kind of openness to being moved. When it happens, it feels as if the boundary between self and world briefly dissolves. A piece of music swells, a landscape opens, a line of poetry lands with unexpected force—and the body answers before the mind fully understands why.

Scientific research has tried to map this experience with increasing precision. Although frisson has been studied most extensively in the context of music, the underlying mechanism appears consistent across domains: a sudden violation of expectation paired with a sense of safety and meaning (Grewe et al., 2007). Neuroscientific work shows that frisson involves simultaneous activation of the brain’s reward circuitry—particularly the nucleus accumbens—and regions associated with emotional appraisal, such as the insula and anterior cingulate cortex (Salimpoor et al., 2011). This combination is important. Frisson is not merely pleasure; it is pleasure fused with significance. The stimulus must be perceived as meaningful, surprising, or transcendent. Without that interpretive layer, the same stimulus remains just a song, just a view, just a moment.

This helps explain why some people experience frisson easily while others rarely or never do. The strongest predictor of frisson is the personality trait known as openness to experience, which includes curiosity, imagination, aesthetic sensitivity, and emotional absorption (McCrae, 2007). Individuals high in openness tend to notice sensory detail, appreciate complexity, and allow themselves to be emotionally moved. They do not merely perceive the world; they receive it. That receptivity creates the conditions in which frisson can occur.

Another important factor is the capacity for absorption—the ability to become fully immersed in an experience. People who naturally lose themselves in music, art, or nature show higher rates of frisson (Silvia & Nusbaum, 2011). Absorption is not passive. It is an active willingness to surrender attention, to let the experience unfold without defensive distance or constant self‑monitoring. Emotional responsiveness also plays a role. Individuals who feel emotions vividly or intensely are more likely to experience the physiological cascade that produces chills. And because frisson often occurs at moments of surprise—a harmonic shift, a sudden crescendo, a dramatic reveal—people who are attuned to patterns and enjoy the tension between expectation and deviation are more susceptible to the effect.

Just as certain traits make frisson more likely, others make it less so. People low in openness to experience, who prefer predictability, simplicity, or emotional restraint, may not engage deeply enough with aesthetic stimuli to trigger chills. Some individuals maintain strong top‑down cognitive control over their emotional responses; they analyze rather than absorb, evaluate rather than feel. This stance can inhibit the spontaneous surge that produces frisson. Others simply have lower baseline emotional reactivity, whether temperamentally or through learned regulation, which dampens the physiological response. And for many, the barrier is attentional. Frisson requires immersion. If a person rarely gives undivided attention to music, art, or natural beauty—or tends to multitask through such experiences—the necessary conditions for chills never fully assemble.

Frisson is not a measure of sophistication or sensitivity. It is simply one way the nervous system signals that something meaningful has occurred. But it does reveal something important about how we engage with the world. Some people walk through a forest and see trees. Others walk through the same forest and feel a shiver rise along the spine as the light shifts through the branches. The difference is not in the forest. It is in the openness, attention, and emotional permeability of the observer.

Aesthetic chills remind us that beauty is not merely perceived—it is received. And receiving requires a certain posture of mind: receptive, curious, unguarded. Not everyone gets aesthetic chills. But for those who do, frisson is a momentary alignment of perception, meaning, and emotion—a brief, electric reminder that the world still has the power to move us.

In sum, frisson appears to be less a universal reflex and more a signature of how an individual encounters the world. It arises at the intersection of openness, attention, emotional receptivity, and meaning-detection. Those who experience aesthetic chills are not simply more sensitive; they are often better tuned to complexity, more tolerant of uncertainty, and more willing to let external reality impress itself upon them. Those who do not experience frisson may still appreciate beauty, but they do so at a cognitive distance, without the embodied confirmation that something profound has occurred. 

Given how ugly our contemporary world  sometimes can be, we  should strive—as much as possible—to experience personal frisson, and to encourage it in those around us. That way, we make our own lives and the lives of those we love far more beautiful.

                                                                            References

Grewe, O., Nagel, F., Kopiez, R., & Altenmüller, E. (2007). Listening to music as a re-creative process: Physiological, psychological, and psychoacoustical correlates of chills and strong emotions. Music Perception, 24(3), 297–314.

Harrison, L., & Loui, P. (2014). Thrills, chills, frissons, and skin orgasms: Toward an integrative model of transcendent psychophysiological experiences in music. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 790.

McCrae, R. R. (2007). Aesthetic chills as a psychological construct. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 1(1), 10–19.

Salimpoor, V. N., Benovoy, M., Larcher, K., Dagher, A., & Zatorre, R. J. (2011). Anatomically distinct dopamine release during anticipation and experience of peak emotion to music. Nature Neuroscience, 14(2), 257–262.

Silvia, P. J., & Nusbaum, E. C. (2011). On personality and piloerection: Individual differences in aesthetic chills and emotional responses to music. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 5(3), 208–214.